Micro and Nanotechnology Adoption by the Pharmaceutical Industry Essay Example for Free

Micro and Nanotechnology Adoption by the Pharmaceutical Industry Essay Micro and nanotechnology is starting to show promise in the pharmaceutical industry. The two key questions in this field are ‘what is nanotech’ and ‘aren’t all drugs nanotech – after all, they are in the nano size range’. These can be answered fairly simply; Nanotechnology is where the nano-size of a substance affects its activity – the size placing the substance at the interface between quantum and material effects. The classic example to demonstrate these effects is that of gold nanoparticles. Bulk gold is insoluble and metallic-yellow in colour. However, once the gold is formulated as a nanoparticle it is soluble and the size of the particle determines its colour – from bright blue to vivid red. Two key areas where nanotechnology is showing promise in the pharmaceuticals industry are tools for drug discovery, and secondly in formulation and delivery systems. In the development of tools to support drug discovery, nanotechnology is developing a trend to move away from high throughput to high content screening, where greater information on fewer compounds is achieved. As our knowledge about drug-target interactions increases, it is becoming apparent that high-volume/low-content screening can miss extremely interesting interactions and effects. For example, SPR biosensors can detect a ligand binding step and measure the binding constants. But it cannot measure surface stresses caused by binding, which are an important factor for example in antibiotic efficacy against MRSA and VRE. Here nanomechanical cantilevers have been shown to be effective in providing extremely elegant information that can explain the difference between various drugs that appear to have the same binding kinetics.[i] The move to high content screening has been slow due to the large investments in high throughput screening laboratories and so new systems need to be compatible. However, where systems are compatible with these techniques – for example using 96 well plate platforms, adoption is possible. As a result, improvements and adoption is currently iterative, rather than revolutionary, but it is happening. With regards to nanotechnology in formulation and delivery science, there are a number of early adopters of nanotechnology in the pharmaceutical industry. Table 1 shows a number of types of nanoparticle formulations that are already approved for marketing. The full list of approved ‘nano-enabled’ products is very small and those that have made it to the market are generally reformulations of existing generic drugs. We are still awaiting the second-generation nanodrug, where the nano-effect is integral to the product activity. Nanotechnology appears to be following the classic technology adoption curve as shown in Figure 1. This shows the bell-shaped adoption curve for any technology, overlaid by the technology acceptance line. Nanotechnology appears to have passed through the hype and trough and is now starting to be slowly adopted. It appears that the problem for nanotechnology in formulation is one of risk. Companies need to get their products to market quickly to allow as much market exclusivity time as possible not to recoup their investment, as this is a sunk cost, but to recoup the cost of developing future drugs, the cost of which is becoming ever more expensive. The Tufts Center for Drug Development estimated that the cost of bringing a single drug to market was in the order of $1.2 billion in 2008, compared to $802 million in 2000.[ii],[iii] Given these issues, companies won’t adopt new technology unless they know that the technology has a clear and fast route to approval. This is particularly poignant in drug formulation and other rate-limiting activities that occur post-patent filing. Once a patent is filed, the clock is ticking on the product’s life. If a product is going to be a $1billion a year blockbuster, lost revenues will be at least $2.7 million for every day a product is held from the market. This produces a catch 22 scenario; no-one will take the risk to demonstrate a new technology, especially if it is competing with existing and proven methods, so no-one will see a clear adoption path and use it. This is reminiscent of the fledgling biotech industry 15-20 years ago. Pharma was focussed on small molecules and didn’t want to risk bringing into their portfolio relatively unstable products, with complex manufacturing methods and which were without a clear regulatory pathway. Now however, many traditional large-pharma refer to themselves as biopharma companies and Amgen and Genentech (prior to the Roche purchase) are in the top twenty pharma by revenue. Early adopters, such as Abraxis and Elan, have started to clear a pathway to approval, but as yet no company has developed a true nanodrug – ie one which was conceived as a nano-enabled product from first principles as opposed to using nano-formulation on existing products. Nanotech has a lot to offer the pharmaceuticals industry and if it follows previous technology examples such as biotech, the successful early adopters will reap the rewards. It still has a number of hurdles to leap, such as a clear regulatory pathway and a demonstration of value above and beyond current technologies, before it can become mainstream. However, there are significant efforts by industry and governments to help it to jump the technology adoption gap quickly and ensure it can assist in developing the next generation of products that are needed to solve some of the significant unmet medical needs faced by patients and healthcare professionals. [i] Ndieyira, J. W. et al. Nanomechanical detection of antibiotic–mucopeptide binding in a model for superbug drug resistance. Nature Nanotech. 3, 691-696 (2008). [ii] Outlook 2008, Tufts Center for Drug Discovery (Available at http://csdd.tufts.edu/InfoServices/ OutlookReportsRequest.asp) [iii] Outlook 2000, Tufts Center for Drug Discovery (Available at http://csdd.tufts.edu/InfoServices/ OutlookReportsRequest.asp)

The Handmaids Tale Essay -- English Literature Essays

The Handmaid's Tale Serena Joy is the most powerful female presence in the hierarchy of Gileadean women; she is the central character in the dystopian novel, signifying the foundation for the Gileadean regime. Atwood uses Serena Joy as a symbol for the present dystopian society, justifying why the society of Gilead arose and how its oppression had infiltrated the lives of unsuspecting people. Atwood individualises the character of Serena Joy, as her high status in the society demands power and the domination over the inferior members of the Commander’s household, such as Offred – a handmaid. This shows that Serena Joy has a sense of control, using this privilege to become â€Å"a woman who might bend the rules†; this is similar to the Commander, as Serena Joy is able to associate herself with the black market, for example â€Å"exchanging trade† for relics of the past such as cigarettes. Through the black market, Atwood suggests that Serena Joy is a representation of a society based on a biblical view, thriving to become pure and perfect on the surface, yet the powerful figures that should exemplify obedience to the rules are constantly exploiting their authority. Additionally, the presentation of Serena Joy as a character it made interesting by her contradiction of accepting the new-found Gileadean society; it is plain that she resents the arrangement of having a handmaid in the house keenly as a violation of her marriage; â€Å"My husband. I want that to be clear. Till death do...

Romulus My Father Belonging Essay

What particular insight into an understanding of belonging have you gained from Raimond Gaita’s representation of his father’s life in Romulus my Father in the early chapters of the memoir, and how his choice of language, style, voice and the use of the memoir influenced your response to his story so far In the early chapters of the memoir Gaita gives us images and ideas that he himself acquired from his father, for example ‘Though the landscape is one of rare beauty, to the English or European eye it seems desolate and even after 14 years my facer could not become reconciled to it’ is a quote said early on in the book describing Romulus’ disdain for the Australian landscape which Raimond originally also shared until his enlightenment. Romulus does not feel like he can belong in Australia early in the chapter because he still has the images of the lush, green European landscape in his mind and this leads to a sense of not belonging because he hungers for his homeland. The idea that the landscape shapes your identity and sense of belonging is something that Gaita reinforces. Another insight into belonging that Raimond tries to convey is that people gravitate to those who share similar values/language to them. Romulus is a migrant and feels lost in this country but he then finds other Romanian people and bonds with them.The house at frogmore which was isolated helped shape Gaita’s sense of belonging because he felt safe and free there, this is another example of the place where you grew up shaping your sense of belonging. Time and time again Gaita reinforces the idea that his father was a hero and someone who should be admired. This devotion and love for his father is seen throughout the memoir and we are told anecdotes explaining how Romulus made the hard decisions and tried to raise his son as a good person even going so far to beat him to reinforce these ideals such as lying is bad, respect your parents and not to steal . The repetition of this admiration is used to show the bond between a father and his child.The depression motif gives another insight into how hard it is to acquire a sense of belonging. Many characters in the memoir have depression and this is to emphasis the feeling of loneliness, desolation and non-belonging because of the migrant experience and even Romulus himself goes through states of madness during his life because of the migrant experience. Acceptance by all people is something that people must have to belong or else the sadness/loneliness may drive them to madness also. Christina is an example of this because she has no sense of belonging, travels a lot and has a lot of lovers. Gaita never says she is a bad mother even because of these things, he only reminds us she that she has problems and it is not her fault.Her attempted suicide story is used to make us feel sorry for her and pity because she has never been able to connect with anything, ‘alone, small, frailâ₠¬ ¦forsaken†, this accumulation of adjectives gives us a more descriptive picture of what was happening and how she felt. The narrative is in first person narrative and gives us a firsthand experience in what had happened. The memoir seems more real to us because it is real and therefore we can relate to it better and use it to better our lives. Though his language is more matter of fact at the beginning of the memoir, his eventual ascendance changes his language style so much that is clear that is a wiser and smarter Raimond speaking now. This higher intelligence lets us communicate with him better and so we can fully grasp what he is trying to tell us about belonging and how it is to get that true sense of belonging.

Big Two-Hearted River Essay

Big Two-Hearted River is a two-part short story by Ernest Hemingway about a returning soldier’s fishing trip. The story is composed entirely out of description of what Nick Adams, the protagonist and only character in the story, is doing while on his fishing trip. Although it is not explicitly stated in the short story, it can be inferred that Nick Adams is a war veteran returning to his hometown to try to enjoy his life as he used to before the war. The story may seem nothing at first and may appear as mere descriptions of every action and thoughts of the character, but a closer look would reveal that the story is like an iceberg—hiding the majority of what the author is really trying to say. Deciphering the Story A good deal of reading between the lines would have to be done in interpreting Hemingway’s short story, for a casual, non-critical reader would not find any meaning in the narration of the story. The short story suffers from excessive amounts of description. Every detail of the environment and actions is described vividly. Hemingway does this so much in the story to the point that it almost gets boring. Yet, beneath the surface of the descriptions lies the story’s significance. The whole thing about describing in excess may have been intentional. Hemingway may have intended this to show how distracted the mind of Nick is—Nick is unable to focus on anything except to react on what is upon him. Probably, the only time when he has thought of an idea outside of fishing is when he recalls his memories of Hopkins. â€Å"He could remember an argument about it with Hopkins, but not which side he had taken† (Hemingway 4). The part where Nick thinks about Hopkins show clues that they have been to the war. â€Å"Hopkins went away when the telegram came. That was on the Black River. It took eight days for the telegram to reach him. Hopkins gave away his 22–caliber Colt automatic pistol to Nick† (Hemingway 5). The telegram that Hopkins received was probably a telegram saying that he has been drafted in the army, like most men of proper age during the war. Hopkins probably died in the war because they never saw him again. Symbolism in the story best describes the hidden meaning of the short story. The grasshoppers Nick found symbolize the soldiers and their condition during the war. â€Å"The grasshopper was black†¦They were all black†¦they had all turned black from living in the burned-over land (Hemingway 2). The black grasshoppers symbolize the soldiers who all wear the same uniform, and when they returned home, they either find out that their towns have been decimated or they have been permanently scarred by the traumas of the war, or if they are unlucky enough, both. Nick said to one of the grasshoppers clinging on to his sock, â€Å"Fly away somewhere† (Hemingway 2). It symbolizes what Nick is actually doing at the river—he is trying to escape the traumas of the war. One particular line in the story symbolizes the condition of the soldiers at war. â€Å"They flew when they hopped. At first they made one flight and stayed stiff when they landed, as though they were dead† (Hemingway 5). The grasshoppers represent the soldier—soldiers are flown in battle, but the horrors of war shock them. Conclusion The story appears to be nothing but a description of what a man is doing in his fishing trip, but like an ice berg, about 90% of its mass, or in this case, meaning, is not seen because it is hidden beneath the narration. Only moderate clues and close reading of the text would reveal the rest of story that gives it significance. Work Cited Hemingway, Ernest. â€Å"The Big Two-Hearted River. † Olearyweb. com. 28 Apr. 2009 .

War on terror essays

War on terror essays Today as Americans, our top concern is our war on terror, national security. Prior to September 11th 2001 American has lived with no fear excluding the elderly who had witnessed the attack on Pearl Harbor. We did not have any knowledge that terrorists would or could attack us here at home, nor did we really pay attention to words like Al Quadi or Taliban. Now as we are considered victims we are aware of the terrorist groups and of course the notorious Osama Bin Ladin. Now that were no longer just saviors of terrorists attacks we can learn and set the standard to all countries victims or witnesses on how to maintain national security. On the 11th of September an everyday tool of transportation was used as a weapon to destroy and massacre. As we have stepped back to understand the reasoning, which only a terrorist can comprehend more importantly, we have focused on how to prevent an event like this happening again. On September 20,2001 President Bush proposes a new Office of Homeland Security which he has make his top priority since. In November 2002 Bush singed the Homeland Security Act. He started that this Act is to protect our citizens against the dangers of a new era. With my signature, this act of Congress will create a new Department of Homeland Security, ensuring that our efforts to defend this country are comprehensive and united. The new department will analyze threats, will guard our borders and airports, protect our critical infrastructure, and coordinate the response of our nation for future emergencies. The Department of Homeland Security will focus the full resources of the American government on the safety of the American people. This essential reform was carefully considered by Congress and enacted with strong bipartisan majorities. From the morning of September the 11th, 2001, to this hour, America has been engaged in an unprecedented effort to defend our freedom and our se curity. As of...

Take Nothing for Granted

Take Nothing for Granted Take Nothing for Granted Take Nothing for Granted By Mark Nichol Just when you think you know everything, you’re reminded that subtlety and nuance are part of even the most mundane information. It’s been said that facts are inconvenient things, but they’re especially vexing for writers, because there are facts, and then there’s what really happened. I just read today that a fellow named Gustave Whitehead preceded the Wright brothers in heavier-than-air flight by more than two years and stayed aloft longer and at a higher altitude than Orville Wright in his inaugural flight. That’s the conclusion of Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, the world’s most authoritative resource about aviation, which claims that Whitehead’s flight, and subsequent efforts preceding the 1903 launch of the Wright Flyer, have precedence. However, Whitehead’s claim is still in dispute, and most aviation authorities credit the Wrights, although their achievement is often qualified by references, for example, to â€Å"controlled, powered, and sustained flight in a heavier-than-air aircraft.† (They are also credited with being the first aviators to develop sophisticated flying instruments.) So, what is one to do when one seeks to write, perhaps merely in passing, about the dawn of flight? It is irresponsible, of course, to say that the Wright brothers invented the airplane, and neither did Whitehead. Nor were they, or he, the first to fly: The achievement of the Wright brothers was preceded by glider flights and powered but uncontrolled flights. Lighter-than-air manned (balloon) flight was first accomplished in 1783 dirigible (steerable) flight occurred the next year and historical accounts exist of working hang-glider-like contraptions built and tested (usually with disastrous results) hundreds of years ago. How, precisely, one qualifies such milestones depends on context and on the sophistication of the audience; a history of aviation directed at children will differ in its references from a technical treatise. But it’s the in between that counts for most writers: A newspaper or magazine article, or a trade book, that mentions the advent of manned flight must concisely acknowledge that the Wright brothers were aviation pioneers but do not deserve unqualified credit for priority. You may never have the occasion to mention flight in your writing other than a passing reference to the mode of travel to your recent vacation destination, but this lesson is scalable to any topic: Unequivocal claims of priority are hazardous to one’s credibility. Take care that such discussions are backed up by documentation and accurately expressed. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Has vs. HadWhenever vs. When EverHyphenation in Compound Nouns

Explain the transformation from the Grand Alliance of World War II to Essay

Explain the transformation from the Grand Alliance of World War II to the development of the Cold War. Why was it impossible to maintain the former Was the - Essay Example (Nordlinger, 5) With the US entering the Second World War following the attack on Pearl Harbour, the three world powers, the US, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were forced to come together to develop strategies to hold back and defeat the axis.(Greenfield, 3-23) At least as far as UK-US relations this strategy was a far easier task for the two nations. Despite the US’s isolationist position in the earlier stages of the war, it remained supportive of the UK. (Greenfield, 3-23) Essentially the Grand Alliance involved a series of common goals and understandings between the US, the UK and the Soviet Union. Following the attack on Pearl Harbour the three countries would both formally and informally negotiate and agree at wartime conferences, government meetings and summits on strategies to defeat Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and Fascist Italy. (Stone, 20) The Soviet’s association with the Grand Alliance grew out of necessity following Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, in June of 1941. (Stone, 15)Following which both British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and US President Franklin Roosevelt pledged their countries’ support. Once the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour the Grand Alliance became a reality. In other words, the UK, the US and the Soviet Union faced a common threat and while the Grand Alliance was primarily focused on war time cooperation, the three nations recognized a common goal to ensure post war security on a global le vel by ascertaining that Germany and Japan would not remain a threat to world peace following the war. (Lewis, 178-241) On 4 February, 1945, the Soviet’s Joseph Stalin, US President Theodore Roosevelt and UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill convened in Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula for what was one of three major war time conferences. The primary purpose of the meeting was to not only